~ Manners & Customs Part II. ~
Food
A look at the food of Bible times (mainly bread!)
Without an understanding of Middle-Eastern cuisine it is almost impossible to understand the significance of the Lord calling Himself the 'Bread of Life'. It is estimated that three quarters of the Middle Eastern population live entirely upon bread or other grain derivatives. This is clearly different from the highly omnivorous American diet; particularly with our inclination to eat carbohydrate as a main food source. I will attempt to give an overview of the food of Palestine and its' preparation; particularly noting how this should alter our thinking when reading Biblical passages mentioning food.
The preeminence of Bread in the East is so strong that the term 'bread' is often used to include all food stuff. As early as Genesis 3:19 the production of 'bread' is seen as one of the principle activities of man. Part of the reason for the centrality of bread within Eastern thought is that even when other articles are combined with the bread they are usually placed within the bread; either to eat or to carry. Thus when the Lord told us to pray for our daily bread; or called Himself the 'Bread of Life' he was describing all food not just a single item.
As one might expect Biblical 'Bread' came in a number of different forms:
The 'loaves' that Jesus fed to the 5,000 are similar to an American biscuit. Described as similar to a flat stone a hand's span across and a fingers breadth in depth. Or to better give you a visual they are about seven inches in diameter and half an inch thick. The 'wafers' of Exodus 16:31, 29:23 are also this form of bread. Luke 11:5 shows that three loaves was considered a good meal. The thinness of this bread tended to make it crisp and prone to dryness and not very edible after a 24 hour period; thus leading to the requirement for 'daily bread'.
The thinner form of this bread is and often used for scooping sauces and stews (not unlike a taco today). Often the was glazed with oil and perhaps sprinkled with spices to provide a treat for festive occasions.
Also a larger form of bread was made. Similar to a Western loaf but rounded. Describes an eight inch disc that is about one inch in thickness.
The method of preparation of the bread: first the flour, water and milk are mixed, then it is kneaded with the hands (or feet in Egypt!) in a kneading trough until it became dough. Then, if there was time, leaven was added and the dough left for a period prior to baking - if no time was available then the dough was baked without adding leaven. Exodus 12:34 shows in one verse how important the kneading trough was, that leaven was added late in the process, and also that the kneading trough was highly portable:
Exo 12:34 "So the people took their dough before the yeast was added, with their kneading troughs bound up in their clothing on their shoulders."
The final step in bread preparation was the baking and again we see a great variety of methods reflecting the 'needs driven' nature of the situation. Here are some examples of what is described:
Simply laying the dough upon hot stones - the method used by Elijah in 1 Kings 19:6. In addition to being laid upon the fire-stones ashes were laid on top of the dough to 'cook both sides'; or the bread was flipped halfway through the cooking process.
1. Creating a fire-pit five foot deep and three foot in diameter. One the pit is very hot bread will bake almost instantly when attached to the sides of the pit.
2. A great stone pitcher had flint placed within it and a fire kindled within it. Once the fire had abated cakes of fine flour could be baked inside the pitcher and loaves baked on the outside. The outside baking method was sometimes achieved using an earthenware jar rather than a stone pitcher.
3. Some towns had a public oven; an earthenware tube some three feet in diameter and five feet in length sunk into the ground. Often this is situated inside a hut. The tube is then filled with fuel to create a fire and once hot enough the women can bake their bread on the sides of the tube. Malachi was thinking of this scene when he described: 'the day cometh, that shall burn as an oven'
4. An alternate public oven was a half-cylinder of stone laid horizontally with a fire kindled within the cylinder. This had the advantage of making the cleaning (or taking!) of the embers much easier.
* The Bible mentions that there were public bakers (Hos 7:4) and that Jerusalem had an entire street devoted to the profession (Jer 37:21). Even post-exile the 'Tower of the Ovens' was a notable landmark (Neh 3:11,12:38)
5. The 'bowl-oven' - a set of stones are placed upon the ground and the dough placed upon the stones. A large bowl is then placed over the stones and dried dung is placed upon the bowl which is then ignited to provide heat.
6. Layers of dung were built one upon another and between the layers the dough was placed. The dung was then ignited and when it had finished burning the bread was cooked.
Once cooked the bread remained to be eaten. A guest arriving at a house would not be greeted if bread was being broken at the time. The habit of breaking bread arose because it was viewed that taking a knife to bread would be 'absolutely wicked'. And of course 'breaking' suited the texture and shape of the food.
While bread is the commonest and probably preferred method of consuming grain in the East it is certainly not the only method. By far the simplest was simply to consume the grain raw. There was specific provision in the Law for someone walking through a field of grain to eat as they went and we read of the disciples doing the same thing. Grain which was still unripe could be rendered palatable by parching; the process involved roasting the grain in a skillet. It was food of this type that David took to his brothers and that Abigail later gave to David.
The type of grain used would again be needs driven. Those with the resources would use wheat and the poorer, (which were the majority) would use barley. When time permitted this would be ground into meal; for special occasions 'fine flour' could be rendered. At the other end of the scale 'beaten corn' was the result of having ground the grain using pestle and mortar.
Having devoted much space to the Palestinian view of Bread it is perhaps useful to remember that whilst Bread was the most important and prevalent form of food it was not necessarily the most palatable or the most popular. We know that during the wilderness years the Jews ate bread made from manna; but this did not stop them fondly remembering leeks, onions and garlic. It is also noteworthy that the 'Promised Land' was described as a land flowing with milk and honey; not one that was particularly good for growing grain!
Naturally, as one would expect, the Israelites would supplement their diet as they were able. Lentils are used to form a wholesome stew; it was such a dish that Esau sold his birthright for. Isaiah mentions a garden of cucumbers (Isa 1:8) and we know of at least two occasions when Gourds are mentioned (Jonah 4:6-10 & 2 Kings 4:39). Palestine is also famous for certain fruit including Olives and Olive oil, figs, grapes and pomegranates.
It is probably in the use of animal products that the Israelites differed most markedly from American practice. For instance the domestic fowl was not introduced until after the time of Elijah; so egg based products and white-meat would not have been common.
Milk from sheep, goats and cows is drunk; but rather than our pre-occupation with freshness they rather prefer to warm the milk with yeast to create 'curds' which are then referred to as 'leben'. Left even longer suspended in a sack and regularly beaten it forms a thicker, oil substance similar to our butter. The diary product we are most likely to recognized and appreciate is cheese which is very similar to our own.
Beyond the preceding it is almost certainly the absence of meat which would strike the westerner as odd. Between poverty, the severe problems of keeping meat fresh and the strict code of the Law of Moses it is entirely impractical to eat meat on anything other than special festive occasions. Even then slaughtering an entire ox would be deemed highly wasteful. Rather it was the 'kid of the goats' that was generally turned to; the sheep being reserved to display the highest possible levels of hospitality.
To a Westerner, the forgoing presented as an overview of Palestinian food may be viewed as unbalanced. As someone used to entering a supermarket with over two dozen isles every one of which presents at least a hundred items from a different food-group it seems strange to me too. This is, however, the effect I was aiming to achieve. Middle Eastern food means bread and 'bread' in the Bible very often means 'food'. Other additions were welcome and sought after but essentially the Jews were the 'bread they ate'.
Thus when Jesus declared Himself the Bread of Life he was not asking to be treated as a 'wrapping' to layer over the 'meat' of everyday life. Rather He was asking to be the root and basis of our existence; may we not be like the Jews hankering after the leeks and onions of Egypt.
Meal Customs
Middle Eastern behavior at meal times
Many of the meals we see narrated in Scripture took place at religious events or in the presence of royalty; as such they are probably not representative of the eating practices of the general populace on a normal working day. Let's attempt to glean some information regarding the general meal-time habits of Biblical times.
The reality was, then as now, that the luxury available at a given meal varied as much with the era and means of the eater as it did with the nature of the occasion. This is seen most clearly in the setting in which the meal took place.
The common eating position in the Middle East prevalent to modern times was sitting or crouching on the floor surrounding a table that was at most slightly raised from the ground. There is some disagreement as to the exact nature of the table but that probably reflects that fact the means and fashions change. In some maunscripts mentions a round low table. Others state that the 'Shool-khawn' generally translated 'table' really means a mat spread upon the ground. This would explain king David's wish that 'their table should become a snare for them'; envisaging someone with the foot caught in the cloth.
A step up from sitting upon the ground would be having a chair; this innovation would be seen with the more settled lifestyle possible once the Jews were living in Canaan citing 1 Sa 20:25. It should be noted though that it was a king seated at that point and even by the time of Solomon having servants seated at a table was considered unsurpassable luxury (1 Ki 10:5). It is interesting to note however that shortly thereafter (1 Ki 13:20) an elderly prophet had chairs and was eating from a table.
By the time of Amos the fashion had become that one should lay on a couch to eat; and the more sumptuous the couch the better!
Amo 6:4 "Who lie on beds of ivory, Stretch out on your couches, Eat lambs from the flock And calves from the midst of the stall"
The tenor of Amos' message suggests however that the innovation was still fairly recent and the words of Amos scarcely hide the contempt he had for those indulging in such luxury. It is perhaps all the more poignant therefore that by the time our Lord walked upon the earth reclining had become the almost universal custom. The shape of the couches and the arrangement of the occupants thereof is also of interest and we'll get to that in a little bit.
While the setting of the Jewish meal varied greatly over time the daily timing of it remained fairly consistent. Around nine or ten in the morning a morsel would be eaten alongside some dainty such as olives. This was considered enough the 'break the fast' but was not considered a meal; eating a full meal that early was considered reprehensible. The first of two full meals would occur around noon; examples are Joseph's feast with his brothers in Egypt (Gen 43:16), Ruth's rest from her labors in the field (Ruth 2:14) and Peter's interrupted meal in Joppa (Acts 10:9). The main meal of the day occurred around sunset. This pattern was possibly created during the wilderness wanderings my God's provision of bread in the morning and meat in the evening (Ex 16:8).
It is probable that the serving and consumption of the food also remained fairly consistent over time. As discussed; bread is the major food stuff of Biblical times and a meal consisted principally of that; anything extra provided was usually set in a shared pot in the center of the table. If a meat was provided with sauce (or grease) then the sauce would be in a pot separate from the meat. The bread was dipped into this sauce to soften it; this is the derivation of the 'sop' of Scripture. Indeed the bread was the only utensil provided at a table other than the human hand. An Arab proverb: 'why does man want a spoon when God has given him so many fingers'.
Given the shared pot and the use of the hand as a utensil it is good to note that hand hygiene is an essential part of the Biblical dining practice. The need for hygiene extends to the point where they will not wash their hands in static water; rather they expect someone to pour water whilst they wash their hands in the running stream. This task was often delegated to a servant; thus Elisha is noted as 'one who poured water on the hands of Elijah' (2 Kings 3:11). The washing process is usually repeated at the end of the meal to remove any foodstuffs which may have accrued. By the time of the Lord this reasonable physical cleansing had become an elaborate religious ritual which the Lord's disciples where attacked by the Pharisee's for not following (Mark 7:1-5). Still it should be clearly understood that it was the elaborate ritual that the Lord rejected - not the need for hygiene.
Much as in a Christian household today a grace is said before meals. In the absence of anyone of particular religious status the host says a grace at the start of the meal; this would often be simple and formulaic such as 'In the name of God'. This would either be fully or partially repeated by each individual in turn. At the time of Christ the blessing said was: 'Blessed art Thou, Jehovah our God, King of the world, who causes to come forth bread from the earth.' If a prophet or teacher was present it would be normal to defer the blessing of the food to them. 1 Sa 9:13 gives an early example of this; the blessing that Christ pronounced upon the bread before the feeding of the five thousand is a more famous instance.
In distinction to modern practice it was also customary to give thanks at the end of a meal. Interestingly this behavior has at least as much Biblical mandate as praying before the meal. Deu 8:10 specifically instructs that when you have eaten and are full you should give thanks for the food that has been provided for you. Once again a participant in the meal would give thanks out loud and then the remainder would either say an 'Amen' or recite some fragment of the prayer.
As we have seen the setting of the Biblical meal changed over time from a simple seated circle around a mat to sumptuous couches that people could lounge upon. The timing of the meal was more consistent; essentially corresponding to a noon lunch and an early evening main meal. The food itself was served without utensils in a shared bowl or bowls; individuals would eat by dipping their bread or hand into the food. Such communal eating required hand hygiene before and after meals although not the elaboration that sometimes occurred. Thankfulness to God for provision was expected before and after eating.
Banquets
The grand feast of the Middle East
While a simple meal of bread was the centerpiece for the average person's day it was the special supper or banquet which is the centerpiece in many Biblical narratives. This is perhaps because, almost by definition, an occasion worthy of being recorded in scripture is a special occasion. Certainly one can easily justify that any meal at which the Lord was a guest should be deemed a banquet. Therefore the purpose of this is to discuss some of the custom and behavior that surrounded a Biblical Banquet.
We will start, as would the banquet, with the invitation. The custom in the East was to double the invitation. The first invitation would announce the future event and the second would be sent when the food was ready. Examples of this in scripture include Esther's invitation to Ahasuerus and Haman (Est 5:8, 6:14) and perhaps more importantly the parable of the Wedding of the King's Son (Mat 22:2,3) and the parable of the Great Supper (Luke 14:16,17). ISBE suggests that the double invitation was of practical necessity given the scarcity of time pieces.
The banquet was a sufficiently important part of Eastern life that an invitation to it, or exclusion from it, was an important hallmark of someone's status. This is manifested in a number of ways.
First the invitation is given, it is then rejected and then the invitation is given again to compel the subject to attend. Examples are Luke 14:23 and Lydia's invitation to Paul in Acts 16:15
It was the host of the feast that himself shut the door on the gathering; to define those that could attend and those that couldn't. Luke 13:25 is an example where it is the Lord Jesus closing the door
The Parable of the Guests in Luke 14:12-15; the parable suggests both a tendency towards cliques and attempts at social climbing; the invitation of the 'in' crowd and those you wish to influence. Christ councils rather the invitation of the weaker in society.
Part of the pain of exclusion from a feast rest upon the fact that feasts were brilliantly lit and that to be un-invited thus corresponded to being 'cast into outer darkness'.
The status derived from attending a feast did not, however, stop when the door was shut; if anything it became more visible and focused. The coveted status symbol became the seating position. Gen 43:33 shows that initially this would have been a fairly simple line with the most senior closest to the head of the table. The seating arrangements become more elaborate over time: some guests might be seated in a lower part of the house and those with greater status in a higher part. The ultimate seating position was at the right hand of the host with the left as a close second. Greater honor could be implied by serving the guest an extra portion (Gen 43:34) or filling their cup until in overflow (Psa 23:5). Closeness to the host and extra portions were combined into the honor of the sop. The sop was a particularly choice morsel of food which was fed by the hand of the host to some particularly honored guest. It is thus particularly poignant that the Lord should have given such a sop to Judas.
The 'extra elaboration' was set around the triclinium. The triclinium consisted of three couches set into the shape of a U; the fourth side was left open allowing those serving to get to each of the guests. The triclinium was not a Hebrew invention and we see the prophet Amos railing contemptuously against those that lay on couches to eat (Amos 6:4); nonetheless this had clearly become standard practice by New Testament times. The three couches would hold three people able to lie down comfortably as they desired; the host being the one at the base of the U shape. This latter arrangement would explain the expression of John having his head upon Jesus' bosom (John 13:23).
Naturally the banquet would be set with better or more plentiful food than a normal meal; it was also common for a banquet to have lavish amounts of wine. It is for this reason that starting a banquet early in the day, when there was still work to be done, was considered a sign of excess (Isa 5:11). Meat, often scarce in normal life, would usually be provided at a banquet and if it were possible to find the most tender and juicy stall-fed calf then so much the better. The revelry could include garlands upon the head (Isa 28:1), music (Isa 5:12) and dancing (Luke 15:25).
It is perhaps fair to conclude that while everyday meals reflected the necessities of a harsh reality the banquet was an attempt to escape, at least for a moment, from that reality. Food and entertainment was plentiful and a dose of alcohol often further distanced the real world from experience. Viewed more positively it was an occasion where people could be together in extremely close quarters to socialize and where relationships could be forged and cemented. For better or worse this was all wrapped in an elaborate and well understood ritualistic ranking system which allowed the host to express in very clear terms the favor or otherwise he felt towards everyone that he knew.
~ Manners and Customs ~
This week I have been reading on the Manners and Customs of Bible Times and thought I would share a few of the ones that I thought were quite interesting- especially the one about the broken tile.
"There are different kinds of gifts, but the same Spirit. There are different kinds of service, but the same Lord. There are different kinds of working, but the same God works all of them in all men".
1 Corinthians 12:4-6
Removing the Shoes
Exodus 3:5. When one entered a house it was the usual practice to take off one's shoes, because otherwise the dirt from the unpaved streets and pathways would defile the house. If the floors were carpeted by canvas, the canves would be ruined. Removal of shoes was therefore a mark of consideration and respect, and since God can be given no less respect, the removal of shoes is a mark of respect toward God. This practice continues in contemporary society- or at least in my house it does. If your shoes are dirty then take them off please before entering!
This custom of removing your footwear before entering a home has many benefits. Let's look at a few:
First, it makes for a much quieter environment, one without all kinds of footgear clanging around.
Second, it makes for a much cleaner home because you leave the dirt of the outside world where it belongs - outside.
Third, it puts everybody at their real height and does away with all this three-inch-heel intimidation.
Fourth, it provides a sensuality in walking about that the hard soles of a shoe deny you. There is something that is just so completely awesome about digging your toes in a rich thick carpet.
Fifth, it lets your feet breathe. Some may not really appreciate this if your feet smell really horrid but there is a simple solution that everyone can live with. Simply wash your feet. Know what I mean?
Sixth, it gives you a chance to show off your socks, a part of our dresswear that seldom gets seen otherwise. Not to mention that over priced nail polish you sprang for that looks completely divine on your toenails.
Seventh, you can tell who is already in the house by giving the shoes outside a quick once-over, thereby avoiding contact with a person(s) you may want to avoid. I could continue, but I think you get the point.
Entering Women's Quarters
Judges 4:17-22. The story is normally told as an example of Joel's treachery, for when a person was at rest in a tent, he/she was supposed to be completely safe. But there may be more to the story than meets the eye. A guest in a tent slept in the porch area- kind of a entrance area of the tent that had a canvas floor and a small piece of canvas suspended overhead to keep the sun or rain off of you but! it was Not actually part of the tent itself. The actual tent was sheltered by a heavy hanging canvas door. A man was never allowed behind the canvas door, which were the women's quarters. Invasion of women's quarters was punishable by immediate death or at the very least the eyes were gouged out of the one unwise enough to peek behind the canvas door- rather he actually ever entered inside or not.
The Drink of Water
Mark 9:41. One of the first things done for a guest was to give him a drink of cool water. It was a pledge of friendship (Abraham's servant Eliezer looked for a welcome by waiting for a drink of water. (Genesis 24:17-18). When Jesus said, "Whoever gives you a cup of water to drink because of your name as followers of Christ" he was saying that if we pledge a person our friendship for Christ's sake we shall not lose our reward- give him/her a glass of water!
The Broken Tile
Revelation 2:17. Christ tells the angel of the church at Pergamum that to him who overcomes.. I will give... a white stone, and a new name written the stone which no one knows but him who receives it."
A tile was taken and broken in half. One friend wrote his name on one of the halves, and the other friend wrote his name on the other. The two halves were then exchanged. Often the pieces were handed down from generation to generation. To be able to produce the counterpart of a piece of tile, was to guarantee friendship and hospitality for life between the two parties.
Tent Dwelling
A look inside the Tents of the ancient Israelites
From the very earliest of Bible times up to the present day the tent has been a major feature of the Palestinian landscape. Today it is the Bedouin Arabs that dwell in the black goat's hair tents that dot the barren desert; yet the Bible shows us that for hundreds of years tent dwelling was a regular part of Hebrew life. Thus if one wishes to visualize and comprehend the living conditions in which much of the Old Testament it set it is wise to understand the extent to which tent-dwelling pervaded Hebrew life.
There can be no doubt that tent dwelling was prevalent during the earliest stages of the Bible. In Genesis 4:20 Jabal is described as the father of those that live in tents. Post flood we read of Noah retiring to his tent (Gen 9:21) and then of Japheth dwelling in the tents of Shem (Gen 9:27). We are told repeatedly of Abraham pitching his tent (Gen 12:8, 13:18, 18:1) and that Lot had one too (Gen 13:5).
A rather more interesting question is: when did Israel stop dwelling in tents?
The stay of Israel in Egypt weaned them from tent life and trained them for their fixed home in Canaan. Tent dwelling diminished steadily as the Israelites took up residence in Canaan although it remained a part of life when viewing the society as a whole. For example tents were a feature of all the recorded Israelite wars. The last reference he gives is 1 Kings 16:15-16 which documents the reign of Zimri: showing tents used during war well into the divided kingdom. Tents were still used East of Gilead during Saul's reign (1 Chr 5:10) and that in the time of Isaiah shepherds' tents were still a common site (Isa 38:12).
It is the reign of David however that gives us the keenest insight into the tipping point between tent and house dwelling. David was a shepherd and a soldier and thus he would have been a tent dweller on many occasions. It was David though that felt that as he was now dwelling in a building it was time for God to move out of a tent too (2 Sa 7:1-10).
It was also during David's reign that Uriah made the statement:
2 Sa 11:11 "And Uriah said unto David, The ark, and Israel, and Judah, abide in tents; and my lord Joab, and the servants of my lord, are encamped in the open fields; shall I then go into mine house, to eat and to drink, and to lie with my wife? as thou livest, and as thy soul liveth, I will not do this thing".
It would appear that by the reign of David camping in tents, or even under the stars, was still a common condition amongst the Jewish population. In contrast the rich and elite had largely transitioned to buildings and this was considered the preferable alternative for those that could do it.
Most of the information we have regarding the construction of tents comes from observation of the ones that are being used today. The Arab bait shaer (house of hair) is made from black goat's hair which has been woven into strips about twenty seven inches across which are then sewn together and laid parallel to the length of the tent. This goats hair roof is then suspended from a number of poles which may be as few as one but which generally number nine clustered into three groups of three.
When first woven these roofs are not waterproof, but once sodden and shrunk they offer good protection against the elements. The sides of the tents, used mainly in winter, are made either from 'old' pieces of roofing material or from woven rushes. The partitions within the tent are also made from matting material. The tent is secured to the ground by ropes which are attached to pins which are driven into the ground using a mallet. It is probably just such a fastening that Jael used in Judges 4:21 to kill Sisera.
Tents were not generally 'made new' and then 'replaced'. Rather a new strip is made from a year's worth of goat clippings; this strip then replaces the oldest and most worn strip of the existing tent. Thus at any given time a given tent will be from one to about seven years old. For this reason expansion is achieved not by buying a bigger tent but by adding strips to the existing one. This is almost certainly the process alluded to in Isa 54:2. These tents are essentially a family heirloom: in Gen 24:67 we a see a tent passing from Sarah to her daughter-in-law.
For a small family a single tent could provide accommodation for the whole family unit. In such a situation the tent would be divided into three sections. The outer section nearest the door contained the men's quarters. This would also double as the reception area for sharing hospitality with guests. The second compartment, screened from the first, is the women's quarters. The third compartment, if it existed, contained the servants or livestock and sometimes both. This arrangement explains how Sarah was able to overhear the conversation between Abraham and the Lord even though she was not a part of it (Gen 18:10-17).
As a family grew in size, wealth or stature it was possible that one family would own multiple tents. As we have already seen Rebecca took the tent of Sarah. By the time of Jacob his two wives each had their own tents and the two maidservants had a tent too (Gen 31:33).
Second Chronicles 14:15 even details a case where livestock were allocated a tent to themselves. Today when multiple tents form an encampment they are generally encircled to construct a safe enclosure for livestock. It is possible the patriarchs followed a similar pattern. In contrast we know that the Israelite encampment in the wilderness was aligned in orderly rows and is compared to lines of trees in a formal garden. (Num 24:5-6)
As any hiker will attest it is vital to keep weight to a minimum; for this reason the furnishings inside a tent are typically Spartan. The ground may be covered with rugs or matting during the day with softer matting brought out at night. The clothes worn during the day typically function as the bed-spread during the night. Foodstuffs are stored near the center of the tent with a few cooking utensils and pots and pans available to cook food and some leather skins for storage of liquid. Light is provided by an oil lamp and potentially by the light of the fire. There would generally be two of the latter: one inside the men's quarters and the other outside close to the women's area. The closest one might approach luxury would be having a camel saddle to double as a chair; a situation Rachel found herself in in Genesis 31:34.
As can be seen tent life was a hard life with much work and few luxuries. It was the norm for the patriarchs and for the Israelites that left Egypt. It was probably the norm for most people right up until the time of David. From then it appears that those that could forsook the nomadic tent for a more permanent lifestyle. However the simplicity and pilgrim mentality that allowed man to move from place to place at a moment's notice held a charm and honor in Israeli thought that kept tent imagery prominent even amongst the later prophets (Zec 12:7).
One Room Houses
The peasant dwelling of the Israelites
For the poorer people, moving from tents to houses did not significantly increase the degree of comfort available from their living quarters - it did however raise the feeling of permanence and the sense of community. By modern standards it would almost be incorrect to describe these dwellings as houses; they were closer to what we would today term a 'hut'.
Nonetheless they were significant within Jewish society and the Bible is filled with references to them.
The opinions regarding the 'standard' floor plan of a peasant dwelling during early Biblical times are as diverse as the authorities consulted. Though most agree that the lowest classes had houses of one room with the living quarters raised within that room and that the livestock would sleep in the lower areas.
Additions were made as well as could be arranged on the cramped site, and in consequence, plans often became such a meaningless jumble that it was nearly impossible to identify the bounderies of adjoining houses.
In other words people probably started with a single bare room and then partitioned for privacy or extended to provide more space as and when the situation required and resources permitted. Ultimately; the result was just a mess of oddly shaped houses.
The commonest building material was mud which explains Job's comment that men live in houses made of clay. There were two principle ways for this mud to be used: either it was turned into a sun-burned brick or it was used as a form of mortar to bind together walls of irregular stones. Some had the resources to plaster their walls those that didn't faced the prospect of serpents inhabiting them! All faced the reality that mud walls could be dug through by robbers and that without constant maintenance they dissolve into heaps. Indeed Ezekiel 13:10-16 shows that a building might dissolve into heaps even with constant attention if the mud does not have the correct composition and has not been adequately tempered.
Given the potentially hazardous condition of the walls it was vitally important to build upon a strong foundation. As our Lord tells us the wisest built their houses upon rock. While not recorded in scripture the more industrious would dig down until they did reach rock and then build stone arches so that their walls could be built upon rock. A slightly easier and very common practice was to lay a great stone at the corner of the house that was at the lowest part of an incline. This 'corner-stone' was responsible for much of the stability of the structure and received great reverence. The floor of the building was rather less vital and compacted soil was generally deemed to suffice.
The roof itself would be made by stretching a main beam from the center of one wall to the center of an opposing wall. Rafters (smaller beams) would then be stretched at right angles across the main mean; again running from wall to wall. Upon this matrix of wood was then laid a carpet of rushes or brushwood. On top of that was spread a thick layer of dirt and straw which was then compacted down using a roller. The compaction phase was sufficiently important that many houses would have a smaller 'roller' which remained upon the roof for effecting running repairs as required.
The true nature of the Eastern roof is revealed by a Mosaic law which appears strange to Western eyes. In Deuteronomy 22:8 it states that when a new house is built a battlement (or low wall) has to be built around the end of the roof - to prevent bloodshed. The reason is that it was extremely common for people to go upon the roof of a house. For example Samuel met Saul upon the roof, David walked upon his roof and saw Bathsheba, and Peter went onto the roof to pray. The religious usage of the roof was indeed strong: Jeremiah and Zephaniah both record roofs being used to build altars. The roof was also a meeting place in time of calamity (Isa 15:3), fear (Isa 22:1) or even rejoicing. For this reason roofs were easily reached; access being granted by a staircase which ran up the outside of the house.
In many ways the 'dirt floor' which existed on the roof resembled the floor that would have existed at ground level; it could even grow a layer of grass from time to time (Psa 129:6). It is therefore not surprising that it should be a place that people would pitch booths (Neh 8:16). This probably led quite naturally to people building extra rooms or lofts onto the roof (or walls) of the house.
As stated earlier the interior of these houses would not be a significant advance, if any, upon a tent dwelling. The windows would be small and protected by wooden latticework. The door would probably be a wooden board that could be strapped to the doorway. Hinges, when they existed, would have been rudimentary and locks would almost certainly not have been available at all. The furnishings would have consisted of a series of cushions and mats. Perhaps the one 'luxury' that housing may have afforded was in the area of storage. The increased space and reduced requirement for 'lightness' allowed for storage chests, drying room for foodstuffs and a slightly wider array of pots and cooking utensils.
The Eastern house generally did not have a chimney; any smoke from inside having to vent through the small windows or through the other crooks and crevices afforded by the poor construction of the dwelling. While most houses would have had a small hearth in the center of the room cooking was done outside whenever possible. The fire would be made from kindling, sticks, dung, thorns or any other flammable material that came to hand.
I believe the general lesson of these one room homes is that the poor simply assembled what was around them to give themselves shelter and a sense of permanence as best as they could under the circumstances. Dirt was the principle ingredient in many homes; supplemented by vegetation and hard work as required. The ground floor was the 'business area' providing shelter from the elements and handling cooking, storage and even livestock. The roof was the area of relative peace and relaxation; recreating at least some of the freedom of living under the stars and yet also providing some peace and quiet from the activity going on below.
Houses of More than One Room
Larger houses and palaces
For those with the means, the house could move beyond the purely functional and could become a place of luxury and status. Rather than simply growing organically as necessity demanded and resources permitted these homes were designed to cater to the needs of the inhabitants. Of course even within this group the result would differ significantly between that of a prosperous craftsman and that of a king. For want of better classification these expanded dwellings are going to be discussed as the 'houses of more than one room'.
Quite literally the center of a grander eastern home is the courtyard. A two roomed home would be built with a room's width between the two rooms with an adjoining wall connecting the two rooms. The space left became the courtyard. A three room house would have the adjoining wall replaced with the front of the third room. Further ground-floor rooms would be added to the first and second away from the third room. The effect would thus be a U shape with the arms extending with the overall number of rooms. The very grandest houses would have 'courtyards of courtyards' each surround by their own cluster of rooms. When this was the case the women often had their own courtyard.
Across the 'open' end of the U is the door and gateway. These are essentially one and the same. The entranceway is fairly large yet blocked by an equally large and heavy gate which was opened only when need dictated. Set into the gateway was thus a smaller door which could be opened and closed rather more easily to permit the entrance of individuals. Privacy was usually enhanced further by building a small wall just in front of the door to prevent people in the street viewing the courtyard. If resources permitted then an individual would be nominated as the 'porter'; their job was to stand by the doorway and only permit entrance to those whose voice was recognized. In addition to vocal recognition it was not uncommon to have a projecting latticed window positioned above the gateway to allow for the inhabitants to see who was outside. It is quite possibly one of these from which Jezebel looked in 2 Kings 9:30.
To the inhabitant of the house the courtyard served as an idealized 'outside world' onto which the house fronted. Thus while the outside of the buildings which fronted on to the street might be of a mean and lowly appearance the decoration inside the courtyard would be as much as the occupants could achieve. In times of festivity they may even be carpeted. The courtyard could also contain trees, shrubs and flowers. This oasis naturally became the center of activity and would often be used for cooking and eating meals; in colder weather the hearth provided heat. It would have been such a hearth that Peter huddled around when denying the Lord.
One essential component of the courtyard was the cistern. These were essentially a bath set into the ground some four feet by two feet and maybe two feet in depth. Their purpose was to hold rainwater channeled from the surrounding buildings. It is probably one of these which hid David in 2 Samuel 17:18,19. The close proximity of water and fire and provision of privacy also explains why the courtyard could be used for bathing. Thus when Bathsheba bathed in her courtyard (2 Samuel 11:2) she would probably have been screened from anyone that didn't own a much taller building (but of course as we know King David did which is why he saw her).
The second and subsequent stories of the house served as a type of 'veranda' stretching out nine feet from the second and subsequent floors; the 'deck' covering a good portion of the courtyard. The upper rooms were one half of the width of the lower and that the remaining 'half' roof acted as a pathway between the higher rooms. Stone steps lead from the internal courtyard to the roof; though some had wooden ladders. Given that we know of at least two people falling from windows and we know of at least one collection of people supported on a verandah (Judges 16:27) Eutychus falling from the 'third loft' and David's ability to see Bathsheba strongly suggests that houses of three stories were not uncommon by the prosperious. Interestingly there is agreement that upper rooms had projecting windows; which may explain their somewhat lethal tendencies to fall!
It is likely that if a second story or even a third story existed then it would almost certainly be home to the 'guest chamber'. Considered the foremost chamber in the house the room would often have an open front and have a divan around the edge for people to sit. This would essentially allow the guest to 'hold court' from the center of the room with the assembled gathered around the outside. A room on the second floor may also be designated the 'summer house'; with the 'winter house' being more protected from the elements on the ground floor.
As may be expected the furnishings of a more affluent home would be plusher than those of a more modest one. We know that carpets and draperies were used widely; some even draped a shade-curtain over portions of the courtyard. Esther tells us with walls hanging with rich tapestries; in a Persian court. We know walls could be plastered and Jeremiah 22:14 tells us they could be painted; Ezekiel 8:10-12 shows that these paintings could sometimes be idolatrous. Amos 3:15 tells us the houses could be paneled with ivory. Jeremiah 22:14 again tells us that ceilings of wood were hung below the roof; presumably to improve the appearance and to prevent leakage and the droppings of dirt to lower floors. Some of the very wealthiest were actually able to switch to hewn stone as a construction material of the walls: something which would improve the appearance but also structural integrity of the building.
I think we can safe say that there was a class of buildings where the owners had the means to build for what they wanted rather than what they needed. Typically this resulted in a collection of rooms surrounding a well maintained and important courtyard. This courtyard was considered part of the house and the privacy and entrance to it were guarded. The second floor provided much of the higher quality living accommodation when weather conditions permitted it to be used. Much as today, houses tempted people to indulge in creature comforts, something that some of them did very willingly. Just as we do today.
~ Journaling Part IV ~
Conclusion
Thus we have come to the conclusion of our study on journaling and the benefits of journaling. My hope is that in doing this study that it will in some small way help you with your current level of self awareness and ultimately deepen your relationship with Christ, your family, your Christian and non-Christian fellowships and your community.
Again; it is my desire that you do this study over a long period of time and not try and rush through it. In fact; it would bring me great joy to know that you might consider the possibility of printing this out and/or saving it to your hard drive to be printed out multiple times to do again and again as you grow in Grace.
It is a long; sometimes painful but always beautiful, journey in discovering yourself and the contributions that you have to share with the world. It is through our many experiences in this life that God shapes and molds us into the people that He knows we can be.
Happy Journaling Dear Readers!
~ L ~
I. Life Purpose Questions
1. What do you feel is your life purpose?
2. What kinds of things would you like to accomplish or have happen in your future?
3. What dreams do you have for your life?
4. What do you feel as if you here on the planet for?
5. What are human beings on the planet for? (In your view.)
6. What area do you think you could make a contribution in?
7. What kinds of things compel you?
8. What makes your heart sing?
II. Deciding what's important
Everyone has values but few people have sat down and specifically identified them.
The first step in living on purpose is to clarify your values.
Get alone and ask yourself these questions.
Then make a list of the ten most important values that you want to build your life on.
1. What do I value most?
2. What type of person do I want to BE in life?
3. What adjective should I like to describe me?
4. Am I doing what I really care about doing?
5. What is vitally important to me
... has some importance
... has none?
6. What would I like people to remember about me?
7. If I were to write a letter to my children on what is most important in life, what would I tell them?
8. What in my life is trivial and what is essential?
9. What ideals/dreams/goals should I hold onto and what should I let go of?
10. Where do/did I get my values?
11. How much of what I'm doing will count 20 years from today?
12. What are the 10 most important values in my life?
III. Scripture passages
(Mediate on these)
1. "Seek first the kingdom of God and His righteousness, and all these things shall be added to you". Mt. 6:33
2. "In everything you do, put God first, and he will direct you and crown your efforts with success". Pro. 3:6
3. "Where is the man who fears the Lord? God will teach him how to chose the best. He shall live within God's circle of blessing..." Ps. 25:12
4. "Whoever loves money never has money enough: whoever loves wealth is never satisfied with his income. This too is meaningless". Eccl. 5:10
5. "Beware! Don't always be wishing for what you don't have. For real life and real living are not related to how rich we are". Luke 12:15
6. "the fear of human opinion disables; trusting in God protects you from that". Prov. 29:25
7. "If you cling to your life, you will lose it, but if you give it up for me, you will find it". Mt. 10:39
* S H A P E *
S ~ spiritual gifts
H ~ heart (passion)
A ~ abilities
P ~ personality
E ~ experience
IV. Me/Home
Realizing that God planned me before my birth, that He uniquely shaped me for His purpose, I now resolve to live the rest of my life seeking to know and fulfill the life mission God made me for and to rely on His power to accomplish it. As best as I know how I commit my heart, my mind and my will go be used by God anywhere, any way and at any time. I am God's workmanship created in Christ Jesus to do good works which God has prepared in advance for me to do.
1. How am I doing with creating a climate of love, peace, joy, beauty and order in my home?
2. How can I make Christ more the center of my life?
3. What specific character qualities will I work on this month?
4. How can I better discover and develop my * SHAPE *
5. How can I develop and clarify my Life message?
V. Family
1. How can I make Christ more the center of my family?
2. How can I develop my character at home?
3. How can I best use my * SHAPE * to contribute at home?
4. How can I best communicate my life message to my family?
VI. Church/Internet Fellowship
1. How can I focus on Christ more in worship?
2. How can I develop my character through my church/online group?
3. How can I use my * SHAPE * to contribute in my church/online?
4. How can I use my Life message to encourage others in my church/online group family?
VII. Work
1. How can I make Christ more the center of my work?
2. What character qualities can I develop through my work ?
3. How can I use my * SHAPE * to make a contribution at work?
4. How can I communicate my life message to those at work?
VIII. Community
1. How can I make Christ more the center of my community?
2. What character qualities can I develop through service in my community?
3. How can I best use my * SHAPE * to make a contribution to my community?
4. How can I communicate my life message to my community?
~ Journaling Part III. ~
Definition: af·fir·ma·tion
1. the act of affirming
2. something affirmed; positive declaration; assertion
3. a solemn declaration
Today we will begin a series that is broken up into weeks and are designed to stimulate you to explore the real you that is normally tucked away from the rest of the world. Each will have a Scripture to meditate on, a few thought provoking questions, and an affirmation. Let's begin ...
Journal: Daily Affirmation
Week 1
~ Day 1 ~
In spite of all the advertising around me, how can I remind myself that life is really about living for God not myself?
"Everything got started in him and finds it's purpose in him."
Col. 1:16.
I will remember it's about focusing on God.
I will redirect my attention on God.
I will remind myself it's about living for him.
~ Day 2 ~
Knowing God uniquely created me, what areas of my personality, background, and physical appearance am I struggling to accept?
"I am your creator, You were in my care even before you were born"
Isaiah 44:`12
I am not an accident.
I was created for a purpose.
I accept my back ground, appearance, and know God loves all of me.
~ Day 3 ~
What would my family and friend say is the driving force of my life?
What do I want it to be?
"You, LORD give perfect peace to those who keep their purpose firm and put their purpose firm and put their trust in you."
Isaiah 26:3
I will allow God to be the driving force in my life.
~ Day 4 ~
What is one thing I should stop doing?
What one thing I should start doing today?
"This world is fading away, along with everything it craves. But if you do the will of God, you will live forever."
I John. 2:17
Dear God help me to see with your perspective what I need to stop and start doing. Amen.
~ Day 5 ~
"Unless you are faithful in small matters, you won't be faithful in larger ones."
Luke 16:10
What has happened to me recently that I now realize was a test from God?
What are the greatest matters God has entrusted to me?
I can remain steadfast in my faithfulness in all situations.
~ Day 6 ~
"We fix our eyes not on what is seen, but on what is unseen, for what is seen is temporary, but what is unseen is eternal."
2 Cor. 4:18
How should the fact that life on earth is just a temporary assignment change the way I am living right now?
I can fix my eyes on eternal things today.
~ Day 7 ~
"For everything comes from God along. Everything lives by his power, and everything is for his glory."
Rom. 11:36
Where in my daily routine can I become more of God's glory?
I can focus on God's giving.
Journal: Daily Affirmation
Week 2
~ Day 8 ~
Thinking about my purpose.
"The Lord takes pleasure in his people."
Ps 149:4
What common task could I start doing as if I were doing it directly for Jesus?
~ Day 9 ~
Think about my trust in God.
"The Lord is pleased with those who worship him and trust his love."
Ps. 147:11
Since God knows what is best, in what areas of my life do I need to trust him most?
I can trust God the most.
God is pleased when we worship him.
~ Day 10 ~
Think about a full surrender.
"Surrender you whole being to him to be used for righteous purposes."
Rom. 6:13
What area of my life am I holding back from God?
~ Day 11 ~
God wants to be my best friend.
"Friendship with God is reserved for those who reverence him."
Ps. 25:14
What can I do to remind myself to think about God and talk to him more often throughout the day?
I can refocus on this now.
~ Day 12 ~
I am as close to God as I choose to be.
"Draw close to God, and God will draw close to you."
James 4:8
What practical choices will I make today in order to grow closer to God.
~ Day 13 ~
God wants all of me.
"Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind and with all your strength."
Mark 12:30
What will I do about this?
~ Day 14 ~
God is real no matter how I feel.
"For God has said, I will never leave you I will never abandon you."
Heb. 13:5
How can I stay focused on God's presence, especially when he feels distant?
Journal: Daily Affirmation
Week 3
~ Day 15 ~
I was formed for God's family.
"His unchanging plan has always been to adapt us into His own family by bringing us to him self through Jesus Christ."
Eph. 1:5
How can I start treating other believers like members of my own family?
~ Day 16 ~
Life is about love
"The entire law is summed up in a single command "love your neighbor as yourself".
Gal 5:14
Honestly, are relationships my first priority?
~ Day 17 ~
I am called to belong not just believe.
"In Christ we who are many from one body, and each member belongs to all to others."
Rom. 12:5
Does my level of involvement in my local church, Christian internet group or community demonstrate that I love and am committed to God's family?
~ Day 18 ~
I need others in my life.
"Share each other's troubles and problems, and in this way obey the law of Christ."
Gal. 6:2
What step can I take today to connect with another believer at a more genuine, heart to heart level?
~ Day 19 ~
Community requires commitment.
"We understand what love is when we realize that Christ gave his life for us. That means we must give our lives for other believers."
I John.3:16
How can I help cultivate the characteristics of real community in my small group and my church?
~ Day 20 ~
Relationships are always worth restoring.
"Do everything possible on your part to live in peace with every body."
Rom 12:18
Who do I need to restore a broken relationship with today?
~ Day 21 ~
It is my responsibility to protect the unity of my church body.
"Let us concentrate on the things which make for harmony and the growth of our fellowship together."
Rom. 14:19
What am I personally doing to protect unity in my church body and family right now?
Journal: Daily Affirmation
Week 4
~ Day 22 ~
I was created to become like Christ.
"As the Spirit of the Lord works with in us, we become more and more like him and reflect his glory even more."
2 Cor. 3:18
In what area of my life do I need to ask for the Spirit's power to be like Christ today?
~ Day 23 ~
It is never too late to start growing.
"Let God transform you inwardly by a complete change of your mind, then you will be able to know the will of God ~ what is good and is pleasing to him and is perfect."
Rom. 12;2
What is one area where I need to stop thinking my way and starting thinking king God's way?
Where can I improve in the area of growth?
~ Day 24 ~
The truth transforms me.
"If you continue in my word, then you are my disciples indeed; and you shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free"
John 8:31-32
What has God already told me in his word that I haven't started doing yet?
What do I feel like I need to be doing next?
Where do I feel like I need to be going next?
~ Day 25 ~
Every temptation is an opportunity to do good.
"God bless the people who patiently endure testing. After whatever they will receive the crown of life that God has promised to those who love him"
James 1;12
What Christ-like character quality can I develop by defeating the most common temptation I face?
~ Day 26 ~
Service is not optional.
"For we are God's workmanship, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do."
Eph. 2:10
What is holding me back from accepting God's call to serve him?
~ Day 27 ~
There is a way out.
"God is faithful he will keep the temptation from becoming so strong that you can't stand up against it. When you are tempted, they will show you a way so that you will not give up in to it."
I Cor. 10:13
Who could I ask to be a spiritual partner to help me defeat a persistent temptation by praying for me?
~ Day 28 ~
There are no short cuts to maturity.
"God began doing a good work in you, and I am sure he will continue it until it is finished when Jesus Christ come again."
Phil 1:6
In what area of my spiritual growth do I need to be more patient and persistent?
Journal: Daily Affirmation
Week 5
~ Day 29 ~
Loving with purpose is the only way to really live.
"For David.. served the purpose of God in his own generation."
Acts 13;36
When will I take the time to write down my answers to life's great questions?
~ Day 30 ~
I was shaped for serving God.
"God works through different men in different ways, but it is the same God who achieves his purpose
through them all."
I Cor. 12:6
In what ways can I see myself passionately serving others and living it?
~ Day 31 ~
Nobody else can be me.
"God has giving each of you some special abilities, be sure to use them to help each other passing on to others God's many kinds of blessings."
I Pet. 4:10
What God given ability or personal experience can I offer to my church body?
~ Day 32 ~
God deserves my best.
"Do your best to present yourself to God as one approved, a workman who does not need to be ashamed and show correctly handles the works of truth."
2 Tim. 2:15
How can I make the best use of what God has given me?
~ Day 33 ~
I serve God by serving others.
"If you give even a cup of cold water to one of the least of my followers, you will surely be rewarded."
Matt. 10:42
Which one of the six characteristics of real servants offers the greatest challenge to me?
~ Day 34 ~
To be a servant I must think like a servant.
"Your attitude should be the same as that of Jesus Christ."
Phil. 2;5
Am I usually more concerned about being served or finding ways to serve others?
~ Day 35 ~
God works best when I admit my weakness.
"My grace is sufficient for you, my power is made perfect in weakness."
2 Cor. 12:9
Am I limiting God's power in my life by trying to hide my weaknesses?
What do I need to be honest in order to help others?
Journal: Daily Affirmation
Week 6 - 40 Day Conclusion
~ Day 36 ~
I was made for a mission.
"Go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you and surly I am with you always, to the very end of the age."
Matt. 28:19-20.
What fears have kept me from fulfilling the mission God made me to accomplish?
~ Day 37 ~
God wants to say something to the world through me.
"Be ready at all times to answer anyone who asks you to explain to hope you have in you but do it with gentle and respect."
I Peter 3:15
As I reflect on my personal story, who does God what me to share it with?
~ Day 38 ~
The great commission is my commission.
"Send us around the world with the news of your saving power and your eternal plain for all mankind."
Ps. 67:2
What steps can I take to prepare to go on a short term mission experience in the next year?
~ Day 39 ~
Blessed are the balanced.
"Live with a due sense of responsibility, not as those who do not know the meaning of life but as those who do."
Eph. 5:15
Which of he four activities will I begin in order to stay on track and balance God's five purpose for my life?
~ Day 40 ~
Life's 5 greatest questions for my life are ...
1. What will be the center of my life?
2. What will be the character of my life?
3. What will be the contribution of my life?
4. What will be the communication of my life?
5. What will be the community of my life?
