~ Manners & Customs Part II. ~
Food
A look at the food of Bible times (mainly bread!)
Without an understanding of Middle-Eastern cuisine it is almost impossible to understand the significance of the Lord calling Himself the 'Bread of Life'. It is estimated that three quarters of the Middle Eastern population live entirely upon bread or other grain derivatives. This is clearly different from the highly omnivorous American diet; particularly with our inclination to eat carbohydrate as a main food source. I will attempt to give an overview of the food of Palestine and its' preparation; particularly noting how this should alter our thinking when reading Biblical passages mentioning food.
The preeminence of Bread in the East is so strong that the term 'bread' is often used to include all food stuff. As early as Genesis 3:19 the production of 'bread' is seen as one of the principle activities of man. Part of the reason for the centrality of bread within Eastern thought is that even when other articles are combined with the bread they are usually placed within the bread; either to eat or to carry. Thus when the Lord told us to pray for our daily bread; or called Himself the 'Bread of Life' he was describing all food not just a single item.
As one might expect Biblical 'Bread' came in a number of different forms:
The 'loaves' that Jesus fed to the 5,000 are similar to an American biscuit. Described as similar to a flat stone a hand's span across and a fingers breadth in depth. Or to better give you a visual they are about seven inches in diameter and half an inch thick. The 'wafers' of Exodus 16:31, 29:23 are also this form of bread. Luke 11:5 shows that three loaves was considered a good meal. The thinness of this bread tended to make it crisp and prone to dryness and not very edible after a 24 hour period; thus leading to the requirement for 'daily bread'.
The thinner form of this bread is and often used for scooping sauces and stews (not unlike a taco today). Often the was glazed with oil and perhaps sprinkled with spices to provide a treat for festive occasions.
Also a larger form of bread was made. Similar to a Western loaf but rounded. Describes an eight inch disc that is about one inch in thickness.
The method of preparation of the bread: first the flour, water and milk are mixed, then it is kneaded with the hands (or feet in Egypt!) in a kneading trough until it became dough. Then, if there was time, leaven was added and the dough left for a period prior to baking - if no time was available then the dough was baked without adding leaven. Exodus 12:34 shows in one verse how important the kneading trough was, that leaven was added late in the process, and also that the kneading trough was highly portable:
Exo 12:34 "So the people took their dough before the yeast was added, with their kneading troughs bound up in their clothing on their shoulders."
The final step in bread preparation was the baking and again we see a great variety of methods reflecting the 'needs driven' nature of the situation. Here are some examples of what is described:
Simply laying the dough upon hot stones - the method used by Elijah in 1 Kings 19:6. In addition to being laid upon the fire-stones ashes were laid on top of the dough to 'cook both sides'; or the bread was flipped halfway through the cooking process.
1. Creating a fire-pit five foot deep and three foot in diameter. One the pit is very hot bread will bake almost instantly when attached to the sides of the pit.
2. A great stone pitcher had flint placed within it and a fire kindled within it. Once the fire had abated cakes of fine flour could be baked inside the pitcher and loaves baked on the outside. The outside baking method was sometimes achieved using an earthenware jar rather than a stone pitcher.
3. Some towns had a public oven; an earthenware tube some three feet in diameter and five feet in length sunk into the ground. Often this is situated inside a hut. The tube is then filled with fuel to create a fire and once hot enough the women can bake their bread on the sides of the tube. Malachi was thinking of this scene when he described: 'the day cometh, that shall burn as an oven'
4. An alternate public oven was a half-cylinder of stone laid horizontally with a fire kindled within the cylinder. This had the advantage of making the cleaning (or taking!) of the embers much easier.
* The Bible mentions that there were public bakers (Hos 7:4) and that Jerusalem had an entire street devoted to the profession (Jer 37:21). Even post-exile the 'Tower of the Ovens' was a notable landmark (Neh 3:11,12:38)
5. The 'bowl-oven' - a set of stones are placed upon the ground and the dough placed upon the stones. A large bowl is then placed over the stones and dried dung is placed upon the bowl which is then ignited to provide heat.
6. Layers of dung were built one upon another and between the layers the dough was placed. The dung was then ignited and when it had finished burning the bread was cooked.
Once cooked the bread remained to be eaten. A guest arriving at a house would not be greeted if bread was being broken at the time. The habit of breaking bread arose because it was viewed that taking a knife to bread would be 'absolutely wicked'. And of course 'breaking' suited the texture and shape of the food.
While bread is the commonest and probably preferred method of consuming grain in the East it is certainly not the only method. By far the simplest was simply to consume the grain raw. There was specific provision in the Law for someone walking through a field of grain to eat as they went and we read of the disciples doing the same thing. Grain which was still unripe could be rendered palatable by parching; the process involved roasting the grain in a skillet. It was food of this type that David took to his brothers and that Abigail later gave to David.
The type of grain used would again be needs driven. Those with the resources would use wheat and the poorer, (which were the majority) would use barley. When time permitted this would be ground into meal; for special occasions 'fine flour' could be rendered. At the other end of the scale 'beaten corn' was the result of having ground the grain using pestle and mortar.
Having devoted much space to the Palestinian view of Bread it is perhaps useful to remember that whilst Bread was the most important and prevalent form of food it was not necessarily the most palatable or the most popular. We know that during the wilderness years the Jews ate bread made from manna; but this did not stop them fondly remembering leeks, onions and garlic. It is also noteworthy that the 'Promised Land' was described as a land flowing with milk and honey; not one that was particularly good for growing grain!
Naturally, as one would expect, the Israelites would supplement their diet as they were able. Lentils are used to form a wholesome stew; it was such a dish that Esau sold his birthright for. Isaiah mentions a garden of cucumbers (Isa 1:8) and we know of at least two occasions when Gourds are mentioned (Jonah 4:6-10 & 2 Kings 4:39). Palestine is also famous for certain fruit including Olives and Olive oil, figs, grapes and pomegranates.
It is probably in the use of animal products that the Israelites differed most markedly from American practice. For instance the domestic fowl was not introduced until after the time of Elijah; so egg based products and white-meat would not have been common.
Milk from sheep, goats and cows is drunk; but rather than our pre-occupation with freshness they rather prefer to warm the milk with yeast to create 'curds' which are then referred to as 'leben'. Left even longer suspended in a sack and regularly beaten it forms a thicker, oil substance similar to our butter. The diary product we are most likely to recognized and appreciate is cheese which is very similar to our own.
Beyond the preceding it is almost certainly the absence of meat which would strike the westerner as odd. Between poverty, the severe problems of keeping meat fresh and the strict code of the Law of Moses it is entirely impractical to eat meat on anything other than special festive occasions. Even then slaughtering an entire ox would be deemed highly wasteful. Rather it was the 'kid of the goats' that was generally turned to; the sheep being reserved to display the highest possible levels of hospitality.
To a Westerner, the forgoing presented as an overview of Palestinian food may be viewed as unbalanced. As someone used to entering a supermarket with over two dozen isles every one of which presents at least a hundred items from a different food-group it seems strange to me too. This is, however, the effect I was aiming to achieve. Middle Eastern food means bread and 'bread' in the Bible very often means 'food'. Other additions were welcome and sought after but essentially the Jews were the 'bread they ate'.
Thus when Jesus declared Himself the Bread of Life he was not asking to be treated as a 'wrapping' to layer over the 'meat' of everyday life. Rather He was asking to be the root and basis of our existence; may we not be like the Jews hankering after the leeks and onions of Egypt.
Meal Customs
Middle Eastern behavior at meal times
Many of the meals we see narrated in Scripture took place at religious events or in the presence of royalty; as such they are probably not representative of the eating practices of the general populace on a normal working day. Let's attempt to glean some information regarding the general meal-time habits of Biblical times.
The reality was, then as now, that the luxury available at a given meal varied as much with the era and means of the eater as it did with the nature of the occasion. This is seen most clearly in the setting in which the meal took place.
The common eating position in the Middle East prevalent to modern times was sitting or crouching on the floor surrounding a table that was at most slightly raised from the ground. There is some disagreement as to the exact nature of the table but that probably reflects that fact the means and fashions change. In some maunscripts mentions a round low table. Others state that the 'Shool-khawn' generally translated 'table' really means a mat spread upon the ground. This would explain king David's wish that 'their table should become a snare for them'; envisaging someone with the foot caught in the cloth.
A step up from sitting upon the ground would be having a chair; this innovation would be seen with the more settled lifestyle possible once the Jews were living in Canaan citing 1 Sa 20:25. It should be noted though that it was a king seated at that point and even by the time of Solomon having servants seated at a table was considered unsurpassable luxury (1 Ki 10:5). It is interesting to note however that shortly thereafter (1 Ki 13:20) an elderly prophet had chairs and was eating from a table.
By the time of Amos the fashion had become that one should lay on a couch to eat; and the more sumptuous the couch the better!
Amo 6:4 "Who lie on beds of ivory, Stretch out on your couches, Eat lambs from the flock And calves from the midst of the stall"
The tenor of Amos' message suggests however that the innovation was still fairly recent and the words of Amos scarcely hide the contempt he had for those indulging in such luxury. It is perhaps all the more poignant therefore that by the time our Lord walked upon the earth reclining had become the almost universal custom. The shape of the couches and the arrangement of the occupants thereof is also of interest and we'll get to that in a little bit.
While the setting of the Jewish meal varied greatly over time the daily timing of it remained fairly consistent. Around nine or ten in the morning a morsel would be eaten alongside some dainty such as olives. This was considered enough the 'break the fast' but was not considered a meal; eating a full meal that early was considered reprehensible. The first of two full meals would occur around noon; examples are Joseph's feast with his brothers in Egypt (Gen 43:16), Ruth's rest from her labors in the field (Ruth 2:14) and Peter's interrupted meal in Joppa (Acts 10:9). The main meal of the day occurred around sunset. This pattern was possibly created during the wilderness wanderings my God's provision of bread in the morning and meat in the evening (Ex 16:8).
It is probable that the serving and consumption of the food also remained fairly consistent over time. As discussed; bread is the major food stuff of Biblical times and a meal consisted principally of that; anything extra provided was usually set in a shared pot in the center of the table. If a meat was provided with sauce (or grease) then the sauce would be in a pot separate from the meat. The bread was dipped into this sauce to soften it; this is the derivation of the 'sop' of Scripture. Indeed the bread was the only utensil provided at a table other than the human hand. An Arab proverb: 'why does man want a spoon when God has given him so many fingers'.
Given the shared pot and the use of the hand as a utensil it is good to note that hand hygiene is an essential part of the Biblical dining practice. The need for hygiene extends to the point where they will not wash their hands in static water; rather they expect someone to pour water whilst they wash their hands in the running stream. This task was often delegated to a servant; thus Elisha is noted as 'one who poured water on the hands of Elijah' (2 Kings 3:11). The washing process is usually repeated at the end of the meal to remove any foodstuffs which may have accrued. By the time of the Lord this reasonable physical cleansing had become an elaborate religious ritual which the Lord's disciples where attacked by the Pharisee's for not following (Mark 7:1-5). Still it should be clearly understood that it was the elaborate ritual that the Lord rejected - not the need for hygiene.
Much as in a Christian household today a grace is said before meals. In the absence of anyone of particular religious status the host says a grace at the start of the meal; this would often be simple and formulaic such as 'In the name of God'. This would either be fully or partially repeated by each individual in turn. At the time of Christ the blessing said was: 'Blessed art Thou, Jehovah our God, King of the world, who causes to come forth bread from the earth.' If a prophet or teacher was present it would be normal to defer the blessing of the food to them. 1 Sa 9:13 gives an early example of this; the blessing that Christ pronounced upon the bread before the feeding of the five thousand is a more famous instance.
In distinction to modern practice it was also customary to give thanks at the end of a meal. Interestingly this behavior has at least as much Biblical mandate as praying before the meal. Deu 8:10 specifically instructs that when you have eaten and are full you should give thanks for the food that has been provided for you. Once again a participant in the meal would give thanks out loud and then the remainder would either say an 'Amen' or recite some fragment of the prayer.
As we have seen the setting of the Biblical meal changed over time from a simple seated circle around a mat to sumptuous couches that people could lounge upon. The timing of the meal was more consistent; essentially corresponding to a noon lunch and an early evening main meal. The food itself was served without utensils in a shared bowl or bowls; individuals would eat by dipping their bread or hand into the food. Such communal eating required hand hygiene before and after meals although not the elaboration that sometimes occurred. Thankfulness to God for provision was expected before and after eating.
Banquets
The grand feast of the Middle East
While a simple meal of bread was the centerpiece for the average person's day it was the special supper or banquet which is the centerpiece in many Biblical narratives. This is perhaps because, almost by definition, an occasion worthy of being recorded in scripture is a special occasion. Certainly one can easily justify that any meal at which the Lord was a guest should be deemed a banquet. Therefore the purpose of this is to discuss some of the custom and behavior that surrounded a Biblical Banquet.
We will start, as would the banquet, with the invitation. The custom in the East was to double the invitation. The first invitation would announce the future event and the second would be sent when the food was ready. Examples of this in scripture include Esther's invitation to Ahasuerus and Haman (Est 5:8, 6:14) and perhaps more importantly the parable of the Wedding of the King's Son (Mat 22:2,3) and the parable of the Great Supper (Luke 14:16,17). ISBE suggests that the double invitation was of practical necessity given the scarcity of time pieces.
The banquet was a sufficiently important part of Eastern life that an invitation to it, or exclusion from it, was an important hallmark of someone's status. This is manifested in a number of ways.
First the invitation is given, it is then rejected and then the invitation is given again to compel the subject to attend. Examples are Luke 14:23 and Lydia's invitation to Paul in Acts 16:15
It was the host of the feast that himself shut the door on the gathering; to define those that could attend and those that couldn't. Luke 13:25 is an example where it is the Lord Jesus closing the door
The Parable of the Guests in Luke 14:12-15; the parable suggests both a tendency towards cliques and attempts at social climbing; the invitation of the 'in' crowd and those you wish to influence. Christ councils rather the invitation of the weaker in society.
Part of the pain of exclusion from a feast rest upon the fact that feasts were brilliantly lit and that to be un-invited thus corresponded to being 'cast into outer darkness'.
The status derived from attending a feast did not, however, stop when the door was shut; if anything it became more visible and focused. The coveted status symbol became the seating position. Gen 43:33 shows that initially this would have been a fairly simple line with the most senior closest to the head of the table. The seating arrangements become more elaborate over time: some guests might be seated in a lower part of the house and those with greater status in a higher part. The ultimate seating position was at the right hand of the host with the left as a close second. Greater honor could be implied by serving the guest an extra portion (Gen 43:34) or filling their cup until in overflow (Psa 23:5). Closeness to the host and extra portions were combined into the honor of the sop. The sop was a particularly choice morsel of food which was fed by the hand of the host to some particularly honored guest. It is thus particularly poignant that the Lord should have given such a sop to Judas.
The 'extra elaboration' was set around the triclinium. The triclinium consisted of three couches set into the shape of a U; the fourth side was left open allowing those serving to get to each of the guests. The triclinium was not a Hebrew invention and we see the prophet Amos railing contemptuously against those that lay on couches to eat (Amos 6:4); nonetheless this had clearly become standard practice by New Testament times. The three couches would hold three people able to lie down comfortably as they desired; the host being the one at the base of the U shape. This latter arrangement would explain the expression of John having his head upon Jesus' bosom (John 13:23).
Naturally the banquet would be set with better or more plentiful food than a normal meal; it was also common for a banquet to have lavish amounts of wine. It is for this reason that starting a banquet early in the day, when there was still work to be done, was considered a sign of excess (Isa 5:11). Meat, often scarce in normal life, would usually be provided at a banquet and if it were possible to find the most tender and juicy stall-fed calf then so much the better. The revelry could include garlands upon the head (Isa 28:1), music (Isa 5:12) and dancing (Luke 15:25).
It is perhaps fair to conclude that while everyday meals reflected the necessities of a harsh reality the banquet was an attempt to escape, at least for a moment, from that reality. Food and entertainment was plentiful and a dose of alcohol often further distanced the real world from experience. Viewed more positively it was an occasion where people could be together in extremely close quarters to socialize and where relationships could be forged and cemented. For better or worse this was all wrapped in an elaborate and well understood ritualistic ranking system which allowed the host to express in very clear terms the favor or otherwise he felt towards everyone that he knew.